CHAPTER 1
Characteristics of Corporate Crime
§ 1.01 Introduction
§ 1.02 Defining Corporate Crime
§ 1.03 Social Significance of Corporate Crime
§ 1.04 Public Injuries from Corporate Offenses
§ 1.05 Relationship Between Corporate Crime and Corporate Management
§ 1.06 Sources of Corporate Crime
[1] Individual Offenders
[2] Corporate Environments
[3] Management Policies and Practices
§ 1.07 Distinctive Features of Corporate Crime
[1] Concealment
[2] Diffuse Responsibility
§ 1.08 Distinctive Agency Relationships Constraining Corporate Crime
[1] Top Managers as Law Enforcement Agents Serving Corporate Shareholders
[2] Operating Employees as Law Enforcement Agents of Corporate Principals
[3] Corporate Managers as Agents of Law Enforcement Officials
§ 1.09 Measuring Corporate Crime
[1] Broad Range of Affected Firms
[2] Federal Offenses
[3] State Offenses
[4] Economic Crime Patterns
[5] Case Study: Financial Consequences of the BP Oil Well Blowout
[6] Consequences of Corporate Convictions: Empirical Research on Penalties Threatening Corporate Survival
§ 1.10 A New Perspective: Evaluating Corporate Crime as a Manageable Defect in Corporate Performance
[1] Components of a Performance Defect Interpretation of Corporate Crime
[2] A Taxonomy of Corporate Crime in Terms of Performance Defects and Prevention Methods
[3] The Role of Compliance Programs in Corporate Criminal Law
§ 1.11 Case Studies in Corporate Misconduct: Corporate Accounting Fraud
[1] Characteristics of SEC Enforcement Actions
[2] Types of Corporate Misconduct Involving Accounting Fraud
[3] Persons Involved in Misconduct
[4] Developing Characteristics of Corporate Offenses: Changing Patterns of Corporate Financial Reporting Fraud
§ 1.12 Patterns in Corporate Law Compliance and Ethical Conduct
[1] The Compliance and Ethics Climate
[2] Absence of Employee Reporting
[3] Concerns About Futility and Retaliation
[4] Elements of Successful Compliance and Ethics Programs
[5] Enhancing Law Compliance: Building an Ethical Culture
[6] Ethical Culture Promotes Law Compliance
[7] Complimentary Impacts of Ethical Cultures and Compliance Programs
[8] Recommendations for Program Improvements
§ 1.13 Conclusion
CHAPTER 2
Rationales for Corporate Criminal Liability
§ 2.01 Why Punish Inanimate Corporate Entities?
§ 2.02 Historical Roots of Corporate Criminal Liability
[1] Irrelevance of Corporate “Personhood”
[2] Rejection of Organizational Fault as a Basis for Corporate Criminal Liability
§ 2.03 Policy Justifications for Corporate Criminal Liability
[1] Corporate Fault Rationales
[2] Incentive Rationales
[3] Economic Rationales
[4] Signaling Rationales
[5] Retributive Rationales
[6] Reformative Rationales
[7] Compensatory Rationales
§ 2.04 Constraints on Corporate Criminal Liability
[1] Constraints Derived from Individual Liability Principles
[2] Economic Constraints
§ 2.05 Criminal Liability for Corporations Closely Aligned with Their Owners
§ 2.06 Conclusion—The Need for a Corporate Jurisprudence
CHAPTER 3
Corporate Criminal Liability Under Federal Law
§ 3.01 Types of Corporate Criminal Liability Under Federal Law
§ 3.02 Corporations as “Persons” Under Federal Statutes
[1] Corporate Provisions of the Federal Dictionary Statute
[2] Grounds for Excluding Corporations from Criminal Statutes
§ 3.03
Respondeat Superior Bases for Corporate Criminal Liability under Federal Law
[1] History of Respondeat Superior Standards for Corporate Criminal Liability
[2] Generally Applicable Standard for Corporate Criminal Liability Under Federal Law
[3] Goals of Respondeat Superior Liability
[4] Organizational Failure to Satisfy Nondelegable Law Compliance Duties
§ 3.04 Features of Corporate Criminal Liability Controlled by
Respondeat Superior Principles
[1] Imputing Conduct
[2] Imputing Mental States
§ 3.05 Scope of Employment Limitations on Corporate Criminal Liability
[1] Role of the Scope of Employment in Determining Corporate Criminal Liability
[2] Purposes Underlying Scope of Employment Limitations on Corporate Criminal Liability
[3] Types of Employee Actions Falling Within the Scope of Corporate Employment
§ 3.06 Corporate Benefit Limitations on Corporate Criminal Liability
[1] Benefit Tests for Corporate Criminal Liability
[2] Purposes Underlying Corporate Benefit Limitations on Corporate Criminal Liability
[3] Sufficient Types of Corporate Benefit
[4] Time Period for Assessing Corporate Benefit
[5] Corporate Criminal Liability Absent Corporate Gain
[6] Insufficient Corporate Benefit for Corporate Criminal Liability
[7] Potential Impact of Corporate Law Compliance Programs on Offense Benefit Assessments
§ 3.07 Rejected Limits on
Respondeat Superior Liability
[1] Managerial or Supervisory Fault Need Not Be Shown
[2] Authorization to Complete Illegal Conduct is Not Needed
[3] Policies or Instructions Prohibiting Illegal Conduct Will Not Prevent Liability
[4] Failure to Convict Responsible Individuals Does Not Preclude Corporate Criminal Liability
§ 3.08 Corporate Criminal Liability Based on the Actions of Corporate Managers
[1] Directing Corporate Agents to Undertake Criminal Conduct
[2] Plain Indifference to Legal Requirements
[3] Ratifying Offenses Committed by Employees Outside the Scope of Employment
§ 3.09 Improving the Clarity and Fairness of Corporate Criminal Liability Based on
Respondeat Superior Principles
CHAPTER 4
Corporate Criminal Liability Based on Collective Knowledge and Action
§ 4.01 Collective Knowledge and Action as a Basis for Corporate Criminal Liability
[1] Basic Principles
[2] Goals of Collective Liability
§ 4.02 Offense Features That Can Be Established Through Collective Knowledge and Action
[1] Corporate Knowledge Based on Group Knowledge
[2] Willful Corporate Action Based on Group Knowledge
[3] Corporate Specific Intent
[4] Corporate Entity Liability Without Agreement on the Responsible Individuals
§ 4.03 Outer Boundaries of Corporate Liability Based on Collective Knowledge and Group Action
[1] No Liability for Failure to Collect Information
[2] Collective Knowledge is Limited to Information with a Reasonably Identifiable Relationship to Law Compliance
[3] Collective Knowledge is Limited to Material Information
§ 4.04 Implications of the Collective Knowledge Doctrine in Corporate Criminal Law
CHAPTER 5
Special Sources and Limitations of Corporate Criminal Liability Under Federal Law
§ 5.01 Corporate Conspiracy Liability
[1] Corporate Liability Under the Federal Conspiracy Statute
[2] Corporate Conspiracies to Restrain Trade
[3] Corporate Conspiracies Under Other Statutes
§ 5.02 Corporate Criminal Liability Based on Conduct of Parties Outside of Corporate Organizations
[1] Corporate Liability for Offenses by Independent Contractors and Other Independent Agents
[2] Corporate Criminal Liability Based on Conduct of Employees of Corporate Subsidiaries
[3] The Minimum Unit for Measuring Liability: Criminal Liability of Corporate Divisions and Other Independently Managed Corporate Subcomponents
§ 5.03 Criminal Liability for Offenses of Dissolved Corporations
§ 5.04 Criminal Liability for Offenses of Predecessor Corporations
[1] Liability for Offenses of Constituent Corporations in Mergers and Consolidations
[2] Liability of Successor Companies for Offenses of Acquired Firms
[3] Liability of Companies Based on Acquisition of Stock of Corporate Offender
[4] Liability of Companies Based on Acquisition of Assets of Corporate Offender
[5] Prosecutorial Discretion Principles Limiting Successor Liability for Corporate Crimes
§ 5.05 Corporate Criminal Liability After Bankruptcy
[1] The Status of Corporate Criminal Fines in Bankruptcy Proceedings
[2] Corporate Criminal Fines as “Debts”
[3] Limits on Dischargeability of Fines Imposed on “Individual Debtor”
[4] A Case Study in Discharge of Corporate Criminal Fines
§ 5.06 Constitutional Limitations on Corporate Criminal Liability
[1] Due Process and Equal Protection
[2] Procedural Protections
[3] Search and Seizure Limitations
[4] Self-Incrimination
[5] Grand Jury Indictment
[6] Speedy Trial
[7] Jury Trial
[8] Right to Counsel
[9] Vagueness
[10] Ex Post Facto Laws
[11] Cruel and Unusual Punishment
[12] Double Jeopardy
CHAPTER 6
Support for a Due Diligence Defense to Corporate Criminal Liability Under Federal Law
§ 6.01 Authority for a Due Diligence Defense
[1] Why Cases Testing Due Diligence Are Rare
[2] Judicial Support for a Due Diligence Defense
[3] Significance of Due Diligence Under Corporate Criminal Liability Standards
§ 6.02 Possible Reasons to Reject a Due Diligence Defense to Corporate Criminal Liability
[1] Punitive Arguments Against a Due Diligence Defense
[2] Incentive Arguments Against Due Diligence Defense
§ 6.03 The Corporate Due Care Defense to “Controlling Person” Liability Under Federal Securities Laws
§ 6.04 Measuring Due Diligence in Detecting and Preventing Crimes by Corporate Employees
[1] Due Diligence in Advance of Offenses
[2] Due Diligence in Monitoring to Detect Offenses
[3] Due Diligence in Reacting to Offenses
§ 6.05 Three Case Studies in Measuring Compliance Due Diligence
Compliance
[1] United States v. Kroger Grocery & Baking Co.
[2] In re Holland Furnace Co.
[3] United States v. Greyhound Corp.
§ 6.06 Conclusion
CHAPTER 7
Corporate Criminal Liability Under State Laws
§ 7.01 Aims and Limitations
§ 7.02 Corporate Criminal Liability Under State Laws Incorporating
Respondeat Superior Standards
§ 7.03 Corporate Criminal Liability Under State Standards Based on Kinship of Agent Authority and Offense Conduct
§ 7.04 Corporate Criminal Liability Under State Laws Based on Model Penal Code Standards
[1] Origins of Model Penal Code Standards for Corporate Criminal Liability
[2] Code Standards
[3] Properly Categorizing Offenses Within the Code
[4] Corporate Liability for Acts of High Managerial Agents Under Model Penal Code
[5] Corporate Respondeat Superior Liability Under Model Penal Code
[6] Corporate Liability Under the Model Penal Code for Failure to Meet Statutory Duties
[7] Corporate Liability Under the Code for Strict Liability Offenses
[8] Does the Code Achieve Its Goals?
§ 7.05 Corporate Criminal Liability Based on Managers’ Inattention to Concealed Hazard—The California Corporate Criminal Liability Act
§ 7.06 Roster of State Standards for Corporate Criminal Liability
§ 7.07 State Penalties for Corporate Fraud and Other Offenses
§ 7.08 Conclusion
CHAPTER 8
Corporate Sentences for Federal Offenses: An Introduction to The Organizational Sentencing Guidelines
§ 8.01 Transformation of Corporate Sentencing Under Federal Sentencing Guidelines
§ 8.02 Historical Patterns of Corporate Sentencing
[1] Pre-Guideline Practices
[2] Changes in Corporate Sentencing Under the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984
[3] A Precursor to Organizational Sentencing Standards: Sentencing Guidelines for Individuals
[4] Developing Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations
§ 8.03 Overview of Organizational Sentencing Guidelines
[1] Underlying Principles
[2] Sentencing Covered by Guidelines
[3] Federal Sentencing Procedures for Corporate Offenders
§ 8.04 Determining Recommended Corporate Sentences Under Guidelines
[1] Corporate Fines
[2] Other Corporate Sentences: Restitution, Remedial